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BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF CHINESE LITERATURE NATIONAL CHENGCHI UNIVERSITY NO.44
Publication date： 2025-12
Yuan Ke’s classification of “immortal myths” (xianhua)—limited to pre-Qin and Han sources—has shaped the traditional understanding of Chinesemythology, yet inadvertently excluded Daoist mythologies, resulting in ahistoriographical gap. With the recent growth in Daoist studies, this paper reevaluates the role of Daoist myths through two sets of case studies: (1) female deities such as the Queen Mother of the West (Xiwangmu) and the Mysterious Woman of the Nine Heavens (Jiutian Xuannü); and (2) local protective spirits like the Five Camps Generals (Wuying bingjiang) and the Earth-Pacifying Gods (Xietu), who remain active in contemporary folk rituals. Building on Prasenjit Duara’s concept of “superscribing symbols,” this study introduces the framework of benxiang (original form) and bianxiang (transformed appearance) to analyze the multivalence of Daoist deities. The Daoist canon functions as a“cultural treasure chest,” where myth, scripture, and ritual intersect. Both sets of deities exhibit continuity and adaptability, fulfilling three analytical criteria: textual (T), historical (H), and ethnographic (F). Their representations, shaped over time, continue to respond to contemporary concerns such as gender, ecology, and communal stability.Three dimensions merit attention: (1) the narrative dimension—from ancient myths to folk tales and canonical accounts—which uses belief as its vehicle and embeds moral implications within Daoist teachings; (2) the social dimension, reflecting historical change and the cultural significance of female divinities under patriarchal systems, as well as the functional role of Daoist priests who respond to communal needs for ritual protection in the Five Camps and Xietu rites; and (3) the cultural-psychological dimension, wherein collective cultural energies are encoded: the two female immortals embody the virtues of yin softness, while the minor deities express communal desires for harmony with the land and a sense of inhabitable security. Though transformed over time, these figures never lose their original intent and retain irreplaceable value today. Contemporary reinterpretations—gender consciousness and ecological concern—further reveal the intrinsic continuity from Daoist philosophy to Daoist religion, where mythic archetypes embedded in ethnic tradition remain ever-renewing. Thus, the Daoist canon, in its preservative and adaptive functions, operates as a cultural treasure chest whose significance transcends historical boundaries, and the value of Daoist mythology continues to command scholarly attention.
The Queen Mother of the West (Xiwangmu) is a goddess of long-standing prominence in Chinese mythology and religious culture. From the mid-Western Han period, belief in Xiwangmu became widespread, and she became one of the principal deities in Han tomb iconography. Archaeological findings show that in depictions of her celestial realm, Xiwangmu is often placed at the center, accompanied by various animals such as rabbits, toads, nine-tailed foxes, and notably, the three-legged crow (sanzu wu)―the only avian sacred creature in such images. These mythic animals reflect Han perceptions of Xiwangmu’s divine functions and the imagined structure of her paradise. This paper analyzes archaeological materials and transmitted texts to examine the iconographic role of the three-legged crow, its associations with the blue bird (qingniao) and the solar
crow (jinwu), and its symbolic evolution. By tracing its origins in texts such as the Shanhaijing, the study explores the visual and cultural significance of the three-legged crow within Han representations of Xiwangmu’s celestial realm.
Within Guo Pu’s extant literary corpus, the Shanhaijing Tuzan 山海經圖讚 and the Erya Tuzan 爾雅圖讚 constitute a substantial portion, yet scholarship on these works remains underdeveloped. In light of this gap, the present study examines Guo Pu’s conception of Kunlun as manifested in the eulogy on “Kunlun” ― namely ‘Kunlun Hill’ in the Shanhaijing Tuzan, a piece that occupies a central position within the world of the Shanhaijing. It is particularly noteworthy that Guo Pu designates this mountain as the “numinous repository of water,” a term that finds no precedent in earlier writings concerning Kunlun. * In Guo Pu’s oeuvre, the term lingfu (“numinous repository”) denotes that which governs the most vital parts of the body. Chinese medicine regards the stagnation of qi and blood as deeply harmful; ensuring the unimpeded circulation of the earth’s vital fluids―and thereby maintaining its health―corresponds to the proper governance of the realm. Kunlun, as the “numinous repository of water,” thus stands as the locus from which the management of waterways ensures the vitality of the world. How, then, is “water” conceived within Guo Pu’s cosmological imagination? Guo Pu composed numerous eulogies devoted to water. For him, water does not merely flow across the earth’s surface as rivers; it also circulates beneath the ground through “earth-veins,” thereby linking all bodies of water that appear separated on the surface―oceans, lakes, springs, wells, and rivers―into a single interconnected system. Moreover, heaven and earth themselves float upon a vast expanse of water. Kunlun, rising at the very center of the world and penetrating the realms of heaven and earth, enables an unbroken circulation between the waters within the cosmos and the waters upon which heaven and earth float. Thus, it preserves the tranquility of this aquatic cosmos.
The philosophy of jing (“reverence”) took concrete form under the Cheng brothers (Cheng Hao, also called Cheng Mingdao, 1032-1085, and Cheng Yi,
also called Cheng Yichuan, 1033-1107) and was later inherited and further developed by Zhu Xi, marking a subtle yet significant transformation. By
comparing Zhu Xi’s thought with that of the Cheng brothers, this study traces the theoretical construction and evolving trajectory of jing. It examines jing in relation to cheng (sincerity), jingshen kongju (vigilance), and the dynamic interplay between stillness and activity. Through this analysis, the paper demonstrates both Zhu Xi’s continuation and expansion of the Chengs’ conception of jing, and highlights his systematic integration of jing with the notions of perception and mind. Such inquiry contributes to the intellectual history of Neo-Confucianism and deepens our understanding of Zhu Xi’s philosophy.
In Jin Ping Mei, Ximen Qing’s life is characterized by rampant debauchery and flagrant corruption. Following his death, unscrupulous servants and duplicitous friends exploit various means to deplete his estate, reinforcing the moral adage that evil begets evil. Yet certain characters choose to uphold their bonds with this notorious figure, thereby earning commendation for their steadfast loyalty. The two Qing Dynasty sequels, Xu Jin Ping Mei and SanXu Jin Ping Mei, continue the narrative beyond Ximen Qing’s death. Marginal characters from the original novel are depicted as confronting disparate fates―some struggle amidst the destitution faced by Ximen Qing’s abandoned wife and son, while others thrive in the bustling scenes of newfound prosperity that emerge after his downfall. This paper investigates the evolving representations of loyal servants
and old acquaintances across Jin Ping Mei and its two sequels. These characters exhibit diverse trajectories: some maintain unwavering fidelity and benevolence, others vacillate between virtue and vice, while still others are imbued with heightened generosity and altruistic impulses. Despite Ximen Qing’s pervasive image as a tyrannical and morally bankrupt figure, subsequent authors introduce elements of warmth and human connection through their portrayals of those who remain loyal to him.
This study examines the special “V+X+O” structures in Taiwanese performance language, drawing on popular song lyrics, glove-puppet theater,
and koa-á songbooks. These include “V+tioʔ8+O” to mark ongoing action, and “V+tioʔ8+O,” “V+liau2+O,” and “V+kue3+O” to indicate completed actions with resulting situational change. The paper further considers unusual patterns where tioʔ8, liau2 and kue3 follow prepositions. Such structures differ significantly from natural spoken Taiwanese. * Though their historical origins vary, these structures share a convergent
trajectory of development. The paper first analyzes the detailed uses of “V+tioʔ8+O,” “V+liau2+O,” and “V+kue3+O,” revealing their parallel functions. It then situates these forms within the historical evolution of similar structures in Classical and early modern Chinese, arguing that the “V+X+O” patterns in Taiwanese performance language inherit grammatical traits from the Song– Yuan period while also displaying internal variation. Next, it explains these grammatical shifts in light of the narrative demands of performance. Finally, it compares usage across lyricists of different eras and glove-puppet performers of different generations, highlighting generational variation in the narrative use of tioʔ8, liau2 and kue3.
